Kate Fahrendorf
HST 485
Dr. Heitmann
13 December 2010
Women as Depicted in Automobile Advertising
During the 1960s and the 1970s
HST 485
Dr. Heitmann
13 December 2010
Women as Depicted in Automobile Advertising
During the 1960s and the 1970s
A world without television commercials, magazine advertisements, and billboards lining the highway seems nearly impossible to envision. However, society did not always exist in a world laden with promotional mantra. Advertising as a whole could not exist without the need of desire. Human nature is not of course naturally instilled with this feeling of desire. Rather, the creation of desire is a well thought and devised plan by many of the major corporations throughout the history of business. Early advertisers had the monumental task of convincing the typical member of society that their current way of life was inadequate or insufficient. Not only did they have the tedious task of persuading the consumer that his or her existing situation was not suitable, but also convincing them to purchase something to remedy it. One of the greatest examples of this necessitated change is in the history of the advertisement of the automobile. In particular, women played a varying, critical role in many of the advertising campaigns of automobile makers. The transformation of the role and view of women, from homemaker and mother to a more sexualized entity used as an accessory for selling the automobile, led to a drastic revolution in automobile advertising during the 1960s and 1970s.
In order to correctly appreciate the state of automobile advertising during the 1960s and 1970s one has to consider the origins of the industry itself. Before automobile makers could convince consumers to buy a particular brand or style, they had to convince them to just buy an automobile. The early automobile had very minimal resemblance to current automobiles. Instead, these primitive automobiles had a much closer semblance to bicycles or horse drawn vehicles, and in many cases that was the actual intent. One of the primary markets for the automobile was farmers. In order to adequately market to farmers, utility was key. A central component of this marketing scheme was the, “…muscle power, difficult terrain, and weather…,”[1] that bicycles were so often seen as dealing with positively. Logically, it made sense for early automobile makers to produce such vehicles as the Model T. Another key aspect and selling point was, “…the T was easily repaired by any mechanic-farmer possessing only a few hand tools.”[2] The Model T by no means was intended to be a pretentious commodity. Instead, automobile makers originally attempted to market early vehicles as horseless carriages. The reasoning behind this was that the automobile was something, at its beginnings, that was completely foreign to the everyday individual. By relating it something that was already widely accepted, the horse carriage, people had an easier time accepting it. However, as time progressed and with the developments of things like honeycomb radiators and four speed transmissions[3], automobile manufacturers attempted to get away from this idea of the horseless carriage. The automobile industry nevertheless could not have solely continued to exist catering only to the agricultural sector, and thus changes and improvements were a necessity for prolonged existence.
The elite and wealthy members of society wanted and were willing to pay more – a great deal more.[4] The late motor historian Laurence Pomeroy described the situation precisely, stating that, “…early pioneers were concerned only with making the motor car go; by the turn of the century they had succeeded in making it go reasonably well, and thereafter they were concerned with making it go beautifully.”[5] This point is further reconfirmed by Heon Stevenson. Stevenson stated that, “By 1927, it was expected that the car would work reliably, allowing the copywriter to escape from technicalities.”[6] One of the main issues that automobile manufacturers faced at the outset was the noise that came from the automobile. Hence, the development of enclosing the motor car came into existence to help remedy some of the noise that resulted from the engine. Along with consideration towards reliability, simplicity, and comfort were the elements of speed, excitement, and competitive prestige. Consequently, racing became an integral constituent of advertising for automobile manufacturers.[7] Here, is where the roots of the modern day automobile advertising that subsists today originated. The automobile industry had sold society on buying an automobile and now individual companies had to sell their product over the competition.
Although, as more manufacturers entered the market such as Packard, Duesenberg, and Opel competition sharply increased for the once dominating companies such as Ford. New techniques for selling had to be employed in order to maintain a competitive advantage. Thus, the importance of acknowledging the female element that existed in most automobile purchases came into existence. This female factor was that women were increasingly gaining a voice within in society, and especially within the familial composition. This new position in society can partially be attributed to the role that women played in World War I and the women’s suffrage movement that followed.[8] These two occurrences allowed women to now have a substantial say in the family budget. This was a key piece of the advertising pie for automobile manufacturers. As Michele Ramsey claims in her work, “Selling Social Status: Women and Automobile Advertisements from 1910-1920,” “…advertisers represented them as consumers in the private sphere.”[9] A woman’s influence on how family budgetary dollars would be spent determined whether their particular cars would be purchased. After all, if a woman set the budget at the low end of the spectrum it would rule out an entire segment of the market, namely the luxury lines. To combat this newly found female financial power, “Manufacturers at both ends of the scale made determined efforts to sell motor cars to women with firms as far removed as Fiat, Sizaire-Berwick and Willys Overland regularly taking space in women’s magazine’s like Vogue, the Ladies Home Journal, and Vanity Fair.”[10] In relation to Ladies Home Journal E.M. Ramsey critiques the focus often placed on the journal. Ramsey states, “…the studies do not discuss automobile advertisements in any detail.”[11] Another facet of targeting this new feminine market was making color options appeal to women. Now colors such as, “…egg-shell blue, mahogany maroon, Venetian green and South Sea turquoise…”[12] were all available to help attract a female incentive to buy. A prime example of this targeting to the female market spectrum is seen in the Jordan Motor Car Company’s advertisement, “Somewhere West of Laramie.” Here, the target was more of a rugged female, but the sexual innuendo used is something that would become exceedingly popular in automobile advertisements for years to come.
While visuals in advertising can be argued as the most crucial element to its success or failure, language is also of extreme importance in creating a successful advertisement. According to Judith Williamson in her Decoding Advertisements, “Having an established language can function as a sign…it can be shown that ads may use language in exactly the same way as pictorial signs: it can be present, to be deciphered, or absent, to be filled in.”[13] As seen in many of the advertisements, especially those insinuating some sort of sexual innuendo, discussed in this paper language is often used in way that allows the reader to fill in the blanks.
The climax of the power that women had in automobile purchasing arguably took place primarily in the 1950s. It was during this period that women were viewed as having substantial control of the household. If a woman was going to be driving a car on a daily basis, it was an uncompromising necessity that she felt comfortable doing so. It was not uncommon for a woman to drop her husband off at work, take the children to school, run errands throughout the day, and then return to pick up her children and husband. Automobile manufactures honed in on this fact and began to target their advertisements increasingly towards women. One of the key advertisements that exemplifies this new ideal is in the advertisement for a 1949 Ford (Appendix A1). Here, the advertisement lists the places a woman has to travel throughout the day and is modeled after all the different “outfits” she has to wear. These “outfits” include chauffeur, delivery boy, nursemaid, and glamour girl. An additional advertisement that correlates with this idea of fashion is portrayed in the “Style Page” for a 1946 Buick (Appendix B1). In this particular scene two women are pictured inside the automobile and surrounding them are men who appear to be completely enamored. Whether they are enamored with the women or the car is unknown however, the message sent to women is clear; if you purchase this automobile you will get noticed. These advertisements resonated with women of the 1950s on a reverberating level, because women were expected to do it all while still looking like a beauty queen.
Another advertisement that coincides with this idea of family and the ideal woman is seen in a 1946 Chevrolet advertisement (Appendix C1). In this advertisement mother and father are envisioned in a picturesque manner with their two children. The Chevrolet is front and center, and is seemingly depicted as the bond that is holding the family together. Corresponding with this idea that the car is truly a part of the family is an advertisement for the 1957 Ford Fairlane 500 (Appendix D1). In this image mother is seen dropping her daughter off at the Fairlane School. All the other school children are gathered around seemingly marveling at the beauty and majesty resonating off the automobile. These particular advertisements seem rather unrealistic and in current context almost laughable. However, automobile manufacturers were in an extremely competitive position during the 1950s and attempted to do nearly anything to stand out from the competition. Some of the more refined advertisements can be seen in the likes of the 1948 Kaiser-Frazer (Appendix E1). This advertisement claims, “Most for Your Money” and details phrases such as “lasting value” along with “styling that will still be out ahead when many of today’s so-called ‘new’ cars have been obsoleted by their own manufacturers!” In summation the primary components of automobile advertising during the 1950s were wholesomeness and practicality that correspond with the family values at the time.
Nevertheless, this particular advertising scheme could not last forever. Just as there was a turning point at the beginning of automobile advertising from utility to style, there would be another change in tactics again. Whereas the previous change would be derived from the growing influence that women had, this change would result from the new and more widely accepted sexualized image of women. As seen in the advertisements of women in the late 1940s and 1950s they maintained certain conservative image. In the advertisements discussed in Appendices A-E none of the women are seen in skirts or dresses that are above the knee. Laura Behling confirms this point by stating, “Nowhere is the influential exchange between the automobile industry and the roles and expectations of women more apparent than in automobile advertisements…” [14] None of the women are illustrated as being particularly voluptuous or curvaceous either. So what change occurred in only a matter of a few years? A change that led to advertisements such as the slightly sexualized advertisement for the 1956 Cadillac “Happy Resolution, for a Happy New Year” (Appendix F1) and later the overtly sexualized 1965 GTO advertisement of “How to tell a real tiger from a pussycat?” (Appendix G1). There are several angles in which this transformation could be argued, but the most compelling has to do with the change of the view of what the role of a woman was in society.
During the 1960s and 1970s there was a serious rise of the counterculture. Hippies began to appear on the scene. A sexual revolution was underway in which women were strongly arguing for their right to “chose” as seen in Roe v. Wade in 1973. This, as well as, the increase of advocating for legislation during the 1960s and 1970s by many feminist groups surrounding birth control. Many would also argue that the 1940s and 1950s were a period of time of subdued power for men in society.[15] By the time the 1960s and 1970s rolled around men were now regaining their place of dominance within society. Society was in a new place, and therefore new demands and expectations were prevalent. Therefore, this meant that the automobile manufacturers would once again have to retool their tactics for advertising in order to satisfy the public.
A point of difference that is important to note is the change that occurred in the automobile industry during the 1920s and 1930s was quite different than what occurred during the 1960s and 1970s. Automobile manufacturers created tangible and desired changes during the 1920s. They resolved issues such as engine noise and manually cranking an engine. What is ironic about these changes is that many of them were done for the benefit of women. An engine that was so loud that it made it impossible to hear what the person sitting next to you was saying was certainly not seen as desirable. Constantly having to get out of the car to repair it when something went wrong was such a common occurrence that a song was even written about it entitled, “He’d Have to Get Under-Get Out and Get Under (to Fix Up His Automobile)” by Maurice Abrahams. So while the changes made during the 1920s were primarily to benefit the driver experience, and most actually did so, the changes made during the 1960s and 1970s were advertised to benefit the driver but often did not do so at all.
There are several key examples that validate this claim that the changes made and advertised for the automobile were often nothing more than for vanity. According to Stephen Fox, in his The Mirror Makers, “Automobile advertising, once preoccupied with reliability and mechanical details, now emphasized styling and performance, subjective and esthetic aspects which the art-conscious ads…could exploit”[16] During the 1960s and 1970s there were several key aesthetic changes that did nothing of mechanical or performance benefit for automobiles that plagued the industry. What the consumer wanted from an automobile was no longer as clear cut as it once was and “…the automobile market became far more unpredictable, and no one knew what the public really wanted.”[17] One of the developments that resulted from this was the invention of Dagmars. These cone shaped chrome objects, which were modeled after a well endowed television personality, were prominent on the bumpers and grills of many automobiles during the 1950s and 1960s. Along with the Dagmars were tailfins, which were especially prominent on automobiles such as the De Soto. They were advertised as increasing the aerodynamics of the automobile, but in reality did very little in making the automobile more streamline.[18] Corresponding the Dagmars and tailfins was the abundant usage of chrome on automobiles. Even though automobiles during this period were not drastically changing manufacturers wanted to give the appearance that they were indeed transforming into something new. Fox does a superb job of explaining this static point in time. He stated, “…automobile advertising says nothing and has said nothing for years.” [19] Therefore, if the automobile manufacturers were not making any significant changes to the commodities they were producing and their advertising campaigns were not saying anything new, something had to change in order for their existence to continue. This change capitalized on the sexual revolution and reinstatement of a consumerist economy driven by men.
The 1950s set the stage of what was to come in the automobile advertising sector. According to Fox, “Instead of packaged goods and cigarettes, the most heavily advertised products now were automobiles, as General Motors passed Proctor & Gamble as the leading national advertiser.”[20] So what types of advertisements were the leading national advertisers publishing? Another point for consideration was, what were the mediums in which these advertisements being published? The answer to the former question was the most sexualized advertisements that had ever been widely published and the latter, in magazines directly devoted to automobiles. Unlike what had occurred in the past with automobile manufacturers directly advertising to women, through magazines like Vogue and Vanity Fair, there were now magazines such as Hot Rod that were completely devoted to car culture.
Analyzing a few major car advertisements from the 1960s and 1970s will help provide examples of the blatant sexual nature that existed. A common theme in many of the advertisements is the contrast between women and felines. Two advertisements that directly address this topic are the Mercury Cougar XR-7 (Appendix H1) and the aforementioned 1965 GTO (Appendix G1) advertisement of “How to tell a real tiger from a pussycat?” In the Mercury Cougar XR-7 advertisement a woman is seen standing next to the automobile, with an actual cougar sitting on top of the automobile. The woman is dressed in animal print clothing while looking seductively at the camera . The advertisement reads, “Because the animal tells you something about the machine. One of a kind.” Although the sexual innuendo here is not quite as apparent, it is still clear what the advertisement is getting at. On the other hand, the GTO advertisement is clearly insinuating a sexual undertone. All that is pictured are two images, one of a woman in the car and another of a tiger in the car. Clearly, here the woman is being referred to as the “pussycat.” These two advertisements correlate with idea that the advertisements during this period were undoubtedly geared towards men. Women took a subservient position in popular culture, often being compared to animals. Both of these advertisements also resonate with the animal instinct that is often connected to the idea of being seen as a truly masculine man. While the advertisements were popular and successful, both show that society in a sense reverted backwards by showing women in such a demeaning light.
Another set of advertisements that also display the visible sexual nature of the advertisements during the 1960s and 1970s include, the 1966 Fiat 1500 Spyder (Appendix I1), the 1968 Dodge Charger R/T SE (Appendix J1), and the February 1973 cover of Hot Rod magazine (Appendix K1). In the Fiat advertisement the woman is viewed in what appears to be scuba gear, hence the flippers, while her body shape is being compared to that of a car. Regardless, of the intent of the advertisers, they are figuratively comparing the woman and the automobile as equals. In the Dodge Charger advertisement the sexual implication is more evident like the GTO advertisement. The woman in the advertisement is standing in a revealing white dress and slightly pulling up the bottom. The caption for the advertisement reads, “Mother warned me…” One can ascertain that the presence of the white dress and white shoes were not an accident. Finally, the cover of the Hot Rod magazine is not quite as sexually apparent as the previous advertisements. However, what it does demonstrate is that the sexual nature of car advertisements infiltrated nearly every aspect of the automotive industry. What all of these car advertisements have in common is that they display the critical shift that occurred in the automotive markets during the 1960s and 1970s. For a considerable period of time women had played an integral role in the automobile purchasing process. Conversely, they still played an essential role in automobile purchasing during the decade of the 1960s and 1970s. Although, this time they were an accessory to sell the object rather than a deciding force of whether to buy the object.
So the question remains, where is the automobile advertising industry headed? How much further will the envelope continued to be pushed as far as the sexual nature of the advertisements? Is there a point in which the advertisements might become too much and have the reverse affect on the consumer? It is a fine line for advertising agencies to decipher what will work and what will not. A car for most individuals is a fairly serious investment and so persuading a consumer to purchase a particular vehicle is apparently something that most automobile companies feel is a worthwhile investment. Stevenson, in his British Car Advertising of the 1960s, states that, “…for most people buying a new car is still an event. People usually only have one car, or perhaps two; and the car is still an inspirational purchase.”[21] Corresponding with this idea of purchasing a car as an event are the automobile shows that are become widely popular. In this setting automobile manufacturers have the unique ability of reaching their customers on a very physical level. This physical level also includes the show girls, usually standing in close proximity to the automobiles. The higher end lines, such as Maserati, normally have their auto show girls wearing at least some type of scantily clad dress. Many of the non- luxury lines however, will have their auto show girls wearing only a bikini and some type of bizarre furry boots. These shows prove that the automobile advertising industry is constantly evolving.
Overall, there are several key points that can be taken from the role women played in automobile advertising. Women were initially seen as one of the crucial components in the purchase of an automobile. This role in the purchasing process increased significantly during the 1940s and 1950s, when women were primarily running the household. However, in the 1960s and 1970s the sexual revolution changed their role drastically. Women were now viewed as an accessory to selling the automobile, not in purchasing it. Maybe the explanation for this change could partly be attributed to the fact that there were very few women in the advertising agencies during this time. There were probably a very small number of women working in advertising agencies on automobile accounts. Whether or not many of the automobile advertisements during the 1960s and 1970s exploited or defamed women is an individual judgment. However, as Ogilvy stated, “My view is that advertising is no more and no less than a reasonably efficient way to sell.”[22] What Ogilvy likely meant by this statement is that advertising may not be a perfect methodology but is the best available. This is likely what the automobile advertisers believed during the 1960s and 1970s too. Their methods may not have always been correct, but they were attempting to do the best they could considering the circumstances. How far the envelope will continue to be pushed in automobile advertising in the future is something only time will answer.
Works Citied
Behling, Laura L. 1997. `The Woman at the Wheel': Marketing Ideal Womanhood, 1915-1934. Journal of American Culture (01911813) 20 (3) (Fall97): 13. Fox, Stephen R. The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators. New York: Morrow, 1984. Heitmann, John. The Automobile and American Life. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2009.
Hot Rod Cover Photo . In Hot Rod. February 1973. http://www.hotrod.com/whereitbegan/hrdp_0803w_1970_hot_rod_covers/photo_38.html (accessed December 13, 2010). Ikuta, Yasutoshi. Cruise-O-Matic: Automobile Advertising of the 1950's. San Francisco : Raincoast Books, 2000. (Used in appendix). Ogilvy, David. Ogilvy on Advertising. New York: Random House, 1983. Ramsey, E.M. "Women's Studies in Communication." Driven from the Public Sphere: The Conflation of Women's Liberation and Driving in Advertising from 1910 to 1920 1, no. 29 (Spring 2006): 88-112Ramsey, Michele. "Selling Social Status: Woman and Automobile Advertisements from 1910-1920." Women & Language 28, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 26-38.Roberts, Peter. Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising. Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976.Stevenson, Heon. American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980: An Illustrated History. Jefferson: McFarland, 2008. Stevenson, Heon. British Car Advertising of the 1960s. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc, 2005.Stevenson, Heon. Selling the Dream: Advertising the American Automobile 1930-1980. London: Academy Books, 1995. Swan, Tony. Retro Ride: Advertising Art of the American Automobile. Portland: Collectors Press, 2002. (Used in appendix)
Williamson, Judith. Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising. London: Boyars, 1978.
[1] John Heitmann, The Automobile and American Life (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2009), 11.
[2] Ibid., 45.
[3] Ibid., 9.
[4] Peter Roberts, Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976), 42.
[5] Ibid., 42.
[6] Stevenson Heon, Selling the Dream: Advertising the American Automobile 1930-1908. (London: Academy Books., 1995), 165.
[7]Peter Roberts, Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976., 55.
[8] Ibid., 106.
[9] Michele Ramsey, "Selling Social Status: Woman and Automobile Advertisements from 1910-1920," Women & Language 28, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 1.
[10] Peter Roberts, Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976., 106.
[11] E.M. Ramsey, "Women's Studies in Communication," Driven from the Public Sphere: The Conflation of Women's Liberation and Driving in Advertising from 1910 to 1920 1, no. 29 (Spring 2006): 96.
[12] Peter Roberts, Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976., 107.
[13] Judith Williamson, Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising (London: Boyars, 1978), 85.
[14] Laura L Behling, "'The Woman at the Wheel': Marketing Ideal Womanhood, 1915-1934," Journal of American Culture 20, no. 3 (Fall 1997): 1.
[15] Heon Stevenson, American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980 (Jefferson: McFarland, 2008), 158.
[16] Stephen R Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of America Advertising and Its Creators (New York: Morrow, 1984), 96.
[17] John Heitmann, The Automobile and American Life (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc.,
2009), 152.
[18] Heon Stevenson, American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980 (Jefferson: McFarland, 2008), 47.
[19] Stephen R Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of America Advertising and Its Creators (New York: Morrow, 1984), 109.
[20] Ibid., 173.
[21] Stevenson Heon, British Car Advertising of the 1960s (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2005), 309.
[22] David Ogilvy, Ogilvy on Advertising (New York: Random House, 1983), 206.
In order to correctly appreciate the state of automobile advertising during the 1960s and 1970s one has to consider the origins of the industry itself. Before automobile makers could convince consumers to buy a particular brand or style, they had to convince them to just buy an automobile. The early automobile had very minimal resemblance to current automobiles. Instead, these primitive automobiles had a much closer semblance to bicycles or horse drawn vehicles, and in many cases that was the actual intent. One of the primary markets for the automobile was farmers. In order to adequately market to farmers, utility was key. A central component of this marketing scheme was the, “…muscle power, difficult terrain, and weather…,”[1] that bicycles were so often seen as dealing with positively. Logically, it made sense for early automobile makers to produce such vehicles as the Model T. Another key aspect and selling point was, “…the T was easily repaired by any mechanic-farmer possessing only a few hand tools.”[2] The Model T by no means was intended to be a pretentious commodity. Instead, automobile makers originally attempted to market early vehicles as horseless carriages. The reasoning behind this was that the automobile was something, at its beginnings, that was completely foreign to the everyday individual. By relating it something that was already widely accepted, the horse carriage, people had an easier time accepting it. However, as time progressed and with the developments of things like honeycomb radiators and four speed transmissions[3], automobile manufacturers attempted to get away from this idea of the horseless carriage. The automobile industry nevertheless could not have solely continued to exist catering only to the agricultural sector, and thus changes and improvements were a necessity for prolonged existence.
The elite and wealthy members of society wanted and were willing to pay more – a great deal more.[4] The late motor historian Laurence Pomeroy described the situation precisely, stating that, “…early pioneers were concerned only with making the motor car go; by the turn of the century they had succeeded in making it go reasonably well, and thereafter they were concerned with making it go beautifully.”[5] This point is further reconfirmed by Heon Stevenson. Stevenson stated that, “By 1927, it was expected that the car would work reliably, allowing the copywriter to escape from technicalities.”[6] One of the main issues that automobile manufacturers faced at the outset was the noise that came from the automobile. Hence, the development of enclosing the motor car came into existence to help remedy some of the noise that resulted from the engine. Along with consideration towards reliability, simplicity, and comfort were the elements of speed, excitement, and competitive prestige. Consequently, racing became an integral constituent of advertising for automobile manufacturers.[7] Here, is where the roots of the modern day automobile advertising that subsists today originated. The automobile industry had sold society on buying an automobile and now individual companies had to sell their product over the competition.
Although, as more manufacturers entered the market such as Packard, Duesenberg, and Opel competition sharply increased for the once dominating companies such as Ford. New techniques for selling had to be employed in order to maintain a competitive advantage. Thus, the importance of acknowledging the female element that existed in most automobile purchases came into existence. This female factor was that women were increasingly gaining a voice within in society, and especially within the familial composition. This new position in society can partially be attributed to the role that women played in World War I and the women’s suffrage movement that followed.[8] These two occurrences allowed women to now have a substantial say in the family budget. This was a key piece of the advertising pie for automobile manufacturers. As Michele Ramsey claims in her work, “Selling Social Status: Women and Automobile Advertisements from 1910-1920,” “…advertisers represented them as consumers in the private sphere.”[9] A woman’s influence on how family budgetary dollars would be spent determined whether their particular cars would be purchased. After all, if a woman set the budget at the low end of the spectrum it would rule out an entire segment of the market, namely the luxury lines. To combat this newly found female financial power, “Manufacturers at both ends of the scale made determined efforts to sell motor cars to women with firms as far removed as Fiat, Sizaire-Berwick and Willys Overland regularly taking space in women’s magazine’s like Vogue, the Ladies Home Journal, and Vanity Fair.”[10] In relation to Ladies Home Journal E.M. Ramsey critiques the focus often placed on the journal. Ramsey states, “…the studies do not discuss automobile advertisements in any detail.”[11] Another facet of targeting this new feminine market was making color options appeal to women. Now colors such as, “…egg-shell blue, mahogany maroon, Venetian green and South Sea turquoise…”[12] were all available to help attract a female incentive to buy. A prime example of this targeting to the female market spectrum is seen in the Jordan Motor Car Company’s advertisement, “Somewhere West of Laramie.” Here, the target was more of a rugged female, but the sexual innuendo used is something that would become exceedingly popular in automobile advertisements for years to come.
While visuals in advertising can be argued as the most crucial element to its success or failure, language is also of extreme importance in creating a successful advertisement. According to Judith Williamson in her Decoding Advertisements, “Having an established language can function as a sign…it can be shown that ads may use language in exactly the same way as pictorial signs: it can be present, to be deciphered, or absent, to be filled in.”[13] As seen in many of the advertisements, especially those insinuating some sort of sexual innuendo, discussed in this paper language is often used in way that allows the reader to fill in the blanks.
The climax of the power that women had in automobile purchasing arguably took place primarily in the 1950s. It was during this period that women were viewed as having substantial control of the household. If a woman was going to be driving a car on a daily basis, it was an uncompromising necessity that she felt comfortable doing so. It was not uncommon for a woman to drop her husband off at work, take the children to school, run errands throughout the day, and then return to pick up her children and husband. Automobile manufactures honed in on this fact and began to target their advertisements increasingly towards women. One of the key advertisements that exemplifies this new ideal is in the advertisement for a 1949 Ford (Appendix A1). Here, the advertisement lists the places a woman has to travel throughout the day and is modeled after all the different “outfits” she has to wear. These “outfits” include chauffeur, delivery boy, nursemaid, and glamour girl. An additional advertisement that correlates with this idea of fashion is portrayed in the “Style Page” for a 1946 Buick (Appendix B1). In this particular scene two women are pictured inside the automobile and surrounding them are men who appear to be completely enamored. Whether they are enamored with the women or the car is unknown however, the message sent to women is clear; if you purchase this automobile you will get noticed. These advertisements resonated with women of the 1950s on a reverberating level, because women were expected to do it all while still looking like a beauty queen.
Another advertisement that coincides with this idea of family and the ideal woman is seen in a 1946 Chevrolet advertisement (Appendix C1). In this advertisement mother and father are envisioned in a picturesque manner with their two children. The Chevrolet is front and center, and is seemingly depicted as the bond that is holding the family together. Corresponding with this idea that the car is truly a part of the family is an advertisement for the 1957 Ford Fairlane 500 (Appendix D1). In this image mother is seen dropping her daughter off at the Fairlane School. All the other school children are gathered around seemingly marveling at the beauty and majesty resonating off the automobile. These particular advertisements seem rather unrealistic and in current context almost laughable. However, automobile manufacturers were in an extremely competitive position during the 1950s and attempted to do nearly anything to stand out from the competition. Some of the more refined advertisements can be seen in the likes of the 1948 Kaiser-Frazer (Appendix E1). This advertisement claims, “Most for Your Money” and details phrases such as “lasting value” along with “styling that will still be out ahead when many of today’s so-called ‘new’ cars have been obsoleted by their own manufacturers!” In summation the primary components of automobile advertising during the 1950s were wholesomeness and practicality that correspond with the family values at the time.
Nevertheless, this particular advertising scheme could not last forever. Just as there was a turning point at the beginning of automobile advertising from utility to style, there would be another change in tactics again. Whereas the previous change would be derived from the growing influence that women had, this change would result from the new and more widely accepted sexualized image of women. As seen in the advertisements of women in the late 1940s and 1950s they maintained certain conservative image. In the advertisements discussed in Appendices A-E none of the women are seen in skirts or dresses that are above the knee. Laura Behling confirms this point by stating, “Nowhere is the influential exchange between the automobile industry and the roles and expectations of women more apparent than in automobile advertisements…” [14] None of the women are illustrated as being particularly voluptuous or curvaceous either. So what change occurred in only a matter of a few years? A change that led to advertisements such as the slightly sexualized advertisement for the 1956 Cadillac “Happy Resolution, for a Happy New Year” (Appendix F1) and later the overtly sexualized 1965 GTO advertisement of “How to tell a real tiger from a pussycat?” (Appendix G1). There are several angles in which this transformation could be argued, but the most compelling has to do with the change of the view of what the role of a woman was in society.
During the 1960s and 1970s there was a serious rise of the counterculture. Hippies began to appear on the scene. A sexual revolution was underway in which women were strongly arguing for their right to “chose” as seen in Roe v. Wade in 1973. This, as well as, the increase of advocating for legislation during the 1960s and 1970s by many feminist groups surrounding birth control. Many would also argue that the 1940s and 1950s were a period of time of subdued power for men in society.[15] By the time the 1960s and 1970s rolled around men were now regaining their place of dominance within society. Society was in a new place, and therefore new demands and expectations were prevalent. Therefore, this meant that the automobile manufacturers would once again have to retool their tactics for advertising in order to satisfy the public.
A point of difference that is important to note is the change that occurred in the automobile industry during the 1920s and 1930s was quite different than what occurred during the 1960s and 1970s. Automobile manufacturers created tangible and desired changes during the 1920s. They resolved issues such as engine noise and manually cranking an engine. What is ironic about these changes is that many of them were done for the benefit of women. An engine that was so loud that it made it impossible to hear what the person sitting next to you was saying was certainly not seen as desirable. Constantly having to get out of the car to repair it when something went wrong was such a common occurrence that a song was even written about it entitled, “He’d Have to Get Under-Get Out and Get Under (to Fix Up His Automobile)” by Maurice Abrahams. So while the changes made during the 1920s were primarily to benefit the driver experience, and most actually did so, the changes made during the 1960s and 1970s were advertised to benefit the driver but often did not do so at all.
There are several key examples that validate this claim that the changes made and advertised for the automobile were often nothing more than for vanity. According to Stephen Fox, in his The Mirror Makers, “Automobile advertising, once preoccupied with reliability and mechanical details, now emphasized styling and performance, subjective and esthetic aspects which the art-conscious ads…could exploit”[16] During the 1960s and 1970s there were several key aesthetic changes that did nothing of mechanical or performance benefit for automobiles that plagued the industry. What the consumer wanted from an automobile was no longer as clear cut as it once was and “…the automobile market became far more unpredictable, and no one knew what the public really wanted.”[17] One of the developments that resulted from this was the invention of Dagmars. These cone shaped chrome objects, which were modeled after a well endowed television personality, were prominent on the bumpers and grills of many automobiles during the 1950s and 1960s. Along with the Dagmars were tailfins, which were especially prominent on automobiles such as the De Soto. They were advertised as increasing the aerodynamics of the automobile, but in reality did very little in making the automobile more streamline.[18] Corresponding the Dagmars and tailfins was the abundant usage of chrome on automobiles. Even though automobiles during this period were not drastically changing manufacturers wanted to give the appearance that they were indeed transforming into something new. Fox does a superb job of explaining this static point in time. He stated, “…automobile advertising says nothing and has said nothing for years.” [19] Therefore, if the automobile manufacturers were not making any significant changes to the commodities they were producing and their advertising campaigns were not saying anything new, something had to change in order for their existence to continue. This change capitalized on the sexual revolution and reinstatement of a consumerist economy driven by men.
The 1950s set the stage of what was to come in the automobile advertising sector. According to Fox, “Instead of packaged goods and cigarettes, the most heavily advertised products now were automobiles, as General Motors passed Proctor & Gamble as the leading national advertiser.”[20] So what types of advertisements were the leading national advertisers publishing? Another point for consideration was, what were the mediums in which these advertisements being published? The answer to the former question was the most sexualized advertisements that had ever been widely published and the latter, in magazines directly devoted to automobiles. Unlike what had occurred in the past with automobile manufacturers directly advertising to women, through magazines like Vogue and Vanity Fair, there were now magazines such as Hot Rod that were completely devoted to car culture.
Analyzing a few major car advertisements from the 1960s and 1970s will help provide examples of the blatant sexual nature that existed. A common theme in many of the advertisements is the contrast between women and felines. Two advertisements that directly address this topic are the Mercury Cougar XR-7 (Appendix H1) and the aforementioned 1965 GTO (Appendix G1) advertisement of “How to tell a real tiger from a pussycat?” In the Mercury Cougar XR-7 advertisement a woman is seen standing next to the automobile, with an actual cougar sitting on top of the automobile. The woman is dressed in animal print clothing while looking seductively at the camera . The advertisement reads, “Because the animal tells you something about the machine. One of a kind.” Although the sexual innuendo here is not quite as apparent, it is still clear what the advertisement is getting at. On the other hand, the GTO advertisement is clearly insinuating a sexual undertone. All that is pictured are two images, one of a woman in the car and another of a tiger in the car. Clearly, here the woman is being referred to as the “pussycat.” These two advertisements correlate with idea that the advertisements during this period were undoubtedly geared towards men. Women took a subservient position in popular culture, often being compared to animals. Both of these advertisements also resonate with the animal instinct that is often connected to the idea of being seen as a truly masculine man. While the advertisements were popular and successful, both show that society in a sense reverted backwards by showing women in such a demeaning light.
Another set of advertisements that also display the visible sexual nature of the advertisements during the 1960s and 1970s include, the 1966 Fiat 1500 Spyder (Appendix I1), the 1968 Dodge Charger R/T SE (Appendix J1), and the February 1973 cover of Hot Rod magazine (Appendix K1). In the Fiat advertisement the woman is viewed in what appears to be scuba gear, hence the flippers, while her body shape is being compared to that of a car. Regardless, of the intent of the advertisers, they are figuratively comparing the woman and the automobile as equals. In the Dodge Charger advertisement the sexual implication is more evident like the GTO advertisement. The woman in the advertisement is standing in a revealing white dress and slightly pulling up the bottom. The caption for the advertisement reads, “Mother warned me…” One can ascertain that the presence of the white dress and white shoes were not an accident. Finally, the cover of the Hot Rod magazine is not quite as sexually apparent as the previous advertisements. However, what it does demonstrate is that the sexual nature of car advertisements infiltrated nearly every aspect of the automotive industry. What all of these car advertisements have in common is that they display the critical shift that occurred in the automotive markets during the 1960s and 1970s. For a considerable period of time women had played an integral role in the automobile purchasing process. Conversely, they still played an essential role in automobile purchasing during the decade of the 1960s and 1970s. Although, this time they were an accessory to sell the object rather than a deciding force of whether to buy the object.
So the question remains, where is the automobile advertising industry headed? How much further will the envelope continued to be pushed as far as the sexual nature of the advertisements? Is there a point in which the advertisements might become too much and have the reverse affect on the consumer? It is a fine line for advertising agencies to decipher what will work and what will not. A car for most individuals is a fairly serious investment and so persuading a consumer to purchase a particular vehicle is apparently something that most automobile companies feel is a worthwhile investment. Stevenson, in his British Car Advertising of the 1960s, states that, “…for most people buying a new car is still an event. People usually only have one car, or perhaps two; and the car is still an inspirational purchase.”[21] Corresponding with this idea of purchasing a car as an event are the automobile shows that are become widely popular. In this setting automobile manufacturers have the unique ability of reaching their customers on a very physical level. This physical level also includes the show girls, usually standing in close proximity to the automobiles. The higher end lines, such as Maserati, normally have their auto show girls wearing at least some type of scantily clad dress. Many of the non- luxury lines however, will have their auto show girls wearing only a bikini and some type of bizarre furry boots. These shows prove that the automobile advertising industry is constantly evolving.
Overall, there are several key points that can be taken from the role women played in automobile advertising. Women were initially seen as one of the crucial components in the purchase of an automobile. This role in the purchasing process increased significantly during the 1940s and 1950s, when women were primarily running the household. However, in the 1960s and 1970s the sexual revolution changed their role drastically. Women were now viewed as an accessory to selling the automobile, not in purchasing it. Maybe the explanation for this change could partly be attributed to the fact that there were very few women in the advertising agencies during this time. There were probably a very small number of women working in advertising agencies on automobile accounts. Whether or not many of the automobile advertisements during the 1960s and 1970s exploited or defamed women is an individual judgment. However, as Ogilvy stated, “My view is that advertising is no more and no less than a reasonably efficient way to sell.”[22] What Ogilvy likely meant by this statement is that advertising may not be a perfect methodology but is the best available. This is likely what the automobile advertisers believed during the 1960s and 1970s too. Their methods may not have always been correct, but they were attempting to do the best they could considering the circumstances. How far the envelope will continue to be pushed in automobile advertising in the future is something only time will answer.
Works Citied
Behling, Laura L. 1997. `The Woman at the Wheel': Marketing Ideal Womanhood, 1915-1934. Journal of American Culture (01911813) 20 (3) (Fall97): 13. Fox, Stephen R. The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators. New York: Morrow, 1984. Heitmann, John. The Automobile and American Life. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2009.
Hot Rod Cover Photo . In Hot Rod. February 1973. http://www.hotrod.com/whereitbegan/hrdp_0803w_1970_hot_rod_covers/photo_38.html (accessed December 13, 2010). Ikuta, Yasutoshi. Cruise-O-Matic: Automobile Advertising of the 1950's. San Francisco : Raincoast Books, 2000. (Used in appendix). Ogilvy, David. Ogilvy on Advertising. New York: Random House, 1983. Ramsey, E.M. "Women's Studies in Communication." Driven from the Public Sphere: The Conflation of Women's Liberation and Driving in Advertising from 1910 to 1920 1, no. 29 (Spring 2006): 88-112Ramsey, Michele. "Selling Social Status: Woman and Automobile Advertisements from 1910-1920." Women & Language 28, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 26-38.Roberts, Peter. Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising. Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976.Stevenson, Heon. American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980: An Illustrated History. Jefferson: McFarland, 2008. Stevenson, Heon. British Car Advertising of the 1960s. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc, 2005.Stevenson, Heon. Selling the Dream: Advertising the American Automobile 1930-1980. London: Academy Books, 1995. Swan, Tony. Retro Ride: Advertising Art of the American Automobile. Portland: Collectors Press, 2002. (Used in appendix)
Williamson, Judith. Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising. London: Boyars, 1978.
[1] John Heitmann, The Automobile and American Life (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2009), 11.
[2] Ibid., 45.
[3] Ibid., 9.
[4] Peter Roberts, Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976), 42.
[5] Ibid., 42.
[6] Stevenson Heon, Selling the Dream: Advertising the American Automobile 1930-1908. (London: Academy Books., 1995), 165.
[7]Peter Roberts, Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976., 55.
[8] Ibid., 106.
[9] Michele Ramsey, "Selling Social Status: Woman and Automobile Advertisements from 1910-1920," Women & Language 28, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 1.
[10] Peter Roberts, Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976., 106.
[11] E.M. Ramsey, "Women's Studies in Communication," Driven from the Public Sphere: The Conflation of Women's Liberation and Driving in Advertising from 1910 to 1920 1, no. 29 (Spring 2006): 96.
[12] Peter Roberts, Any Colour So Long As It's Black: The First Fifty Years of Automobile Advertising (Newton Abbott: David & Charles, 1976., 107.
[13] Judith Williamson, Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising (London: Boyars, 1978), 85.
[14] Laura L Behling, "'The Woman at the Wheel': Marketing Ideal Womanhood, 1915-1934," Journal of American Culture 20, no. 3 (Fall 1997): 1.
[15] Heon Stevenson, American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980 (Jefferson: McFarland, 2008), 158.
[16] Stephen R Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of America Advertising and Its Creators (New York: Morrow, 1984), 96.
[17] John Heitmann, The Automobile and American Life (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc.,
2009), 152.
[18] Heon Stevenson, American Automobile Advertising, 1930-1980 (Jefferson: McFarland, 2008), 47.
[19] Stephen R Fox, The Mirror Makers: A History of America Advertising and Its Creators (New York: Morrow, 1984), 109.
[20] Ibid., 173.
[21] Stevenson Heon, British Car Advertising of the 1960s (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., 2005), 309.
[22] David Ogilvy, Ogilvy on Advertising (New York: Random House, 1983), 206.
